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CHAPTER 1. Introduction ... 5
1.1. Historical overview ... 5
1.2. Definition of stress ... 5
1.3. Stressors ... 6
1.4. Types of stress ... 6
1.5. Biological bases of stress ... 7
1.6. Mechanisms of stress occurrence ... 9
CHAPTER 2. Central structures involved in stress phenomena ... 12
2.1. Hypothalamus ... 12
2.2. Hippocampus (cornu Ammonis) ... 15
2.3. Amygdala (corpus amygdaloideum) ... 18
2.4. Medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) ... 24
2.5. Nucleus accumbens ... 29
2.6. Locus coeruleus ... 30
2.7. Peripheral stress structures ... 31
CHAPTER 3. Neurohormonal basis on neurotransmission in stressful condition ... 33
3.1. Stress hormones ... 33
3.2. Corticoliberin (CRF, CRH) ... 33
3.3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) ... 34
3.4. Cortisol/corticosterone ... 34
3.5. Central adrenergic – catecholamine (CA) systems ... 35
3.5.1. Dopamine (DA) and dopaminergic pathways ... 35
3.5.2. Brain noradrenergic (NA) systems ... 44
3.5.3. Epinephrinergic (adrenaline) system ... 48
3.6. Serotonergic systems ... 48
3.6.1. Serotonergic pathways in the brain ... 49
3.6.2. Brain serotonin receptors ... 49
3.6.3. Functional aspects ... 51
3.7. Central GABA-ergic system ... 52
3.8. Oxytocin/vasopressin system ... 52
3.8.1. The role of OXY in pain and stress ... 52
3.9. Central glutamatergic systems ... 54
3.9.1. Glutamic acid (Glu) – molecular and cellular physiological aspects ... 54
3.9.2. Structure of glutamate ... 56
3.9.3. Occurrence in vertebrates ... 57
3.9.4. The role of Glu in the CNS and its distribution ... 57
3.9.5. The role of Glu in the ANS and its distribution ... 58
3.9.6. Glutamatergic (glutamic) receptors ... 58
3.9.7. The role of glutamate in stress ... 68
3.10. Central cholinergic pathways ... 69
3.10.1. Functional aspects ... 71
3.10.2. Secretion of acetylcholinesterase ... 72
3.11. Central histaminergic system ... 73
3.12. Central purinergic system ... 73
CHAPTER 4. Types of stress and their effects on the body ... 75
4.1. Acute/short-term stress ... 76
4.2. Chronic/long-term stress ... 78
4.3. Post-traumatic stress – post-traumatic stress disorder ... 81
4.4. Adaptive significance of stress ... 82
CHAPTER 5. Fear as stress ... 84
CHAPTER 6. Transport stress ... 87
CHAPTER 7. Parting with the owner as the basis of emotional stress ... 90
CHAPTER 8. Psychophysical distress ... 93
Conclusion ... 96
References ... 98
List of acronyms and abbreviations ... 117
Index ... 120
